UNIVERSITY  OF 
ILUNOISUBRARY 

URBANA.CHAMPAIGN 
CPLA 


.^mw 


SUGGESTIONS 


O  N 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING; 


By     CHARLES     FOLLEN, 


ARCHITECT  AND  lANDSCAPB  GARDZNEE. 


THOROUGH    DRAINAGE; 


By    J.    HERBERT     SHEDD, 


CIYIIi      BNQINEBB. 


1^ 


^^\yy.      PRESENTED  BY 


^ 


N 


/y 


> 


CATALOarE  .  7  ^-^ 


PBESS  OF  THE 

PBANKIiIN    PRINTING     HOUSE 
Comer  of  Franklin  and  Hawley  Streets, 
BOSTON. 


/    .  «:  r. 


!^ 


11^ 


LANDSCAPE    GAEDENING. 


Landscape  gardening  is  a  subject  in  which  we  are 
-^-  all   interested.     It  is   not  an  abstruse  art,  shut  up 
P' between  the  covers  of  expensive  books.     It  is  not 
^'  dependent  on  the  caprice  of  individuals,  nor  on  the 
^fashion  of  the  day.     Its  laws,  like  other  good  laws, 
are   consistent  with  that  every-day  mathematics  — 
common  sense.      It  does  not  follow,  however,  that 
these  laws  are  understood  by  every,  man  of  general 
sound  judgment.     In  fact,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  sub- 
ject on  which  sensible  men  act  so  irrationally,  as  the 
treatment  of  their  grounds.     It  is  very  easy  to  say 
that  the  cause  is  ignorance.     This  is,  in  a  sense,  the 
iG  cause  of  all  our  imperfections,  and  mankind  advances 
'mainly  by  augmenting  its  stock  of  knowledge.     But 
;  the  kind  of  ignorance  in  this  case,  is  not  unacquaint- 
^   ance  with  authors  and  systems,  but  misapprehension 
;  as  to  the  objects  to  be  pursued.      Some   of  these 
-"  objects  we  propose  to  point  out,  and  we  must  first 
(2  notice  some  of  the  prevaiHng  misapprehensions. 
^      We  will  take  first  the  mistake  as  to  the  point  of 
•^  view.     Probably  most  people  think  that  they  arrange 


94 ! i  36 


their  houses  and  grounds  for  their  own  satisfaction, 
and  it  may  seem  paradoxical  to  assert  that  they  do 
no  such  thing.  This  is.  however,  apparently  the  fact. 
Sometimes  a  man  lays  out  his  grounds  without  think- 
ing at  all  of  where  he  shall  put  his  house.  Usually, 
however,  he  goes  so  far  right  as  to  fix  upon  a  build- 
ing place.  Now  this  place  he  selects  mainly  with 
reference  to  the  public  road;  and  he  then  proceeds 
to  lay  out  his  grounds  also  with  reference  to  the  said 
road.  In  short,  the  whole  place  is  made  not  to  be 
looked  from,  but  to  be  looked  at.  It  is  astonishing 
what  inconveniences  men,  not  otherwise  remarkable 
for  their  self-denial,  will  submit  to,  in  order  to  present 
what  they  consider  a  good  appearance  from  the 
street.  Often  the  best  aspect  is  occupied  by  the 
kitchen-yard,  the  stable  and  out-houses,  while  the 
family,  from  a  forlorn,  sunless  drawing-room,  perched 
in  the  air,  in  order  that  the  house  may  look  imposing 
to  passers  by,  peer  through  their  scattered  trees  over 
the  dusty  road  at  their  neighbors'  houses,  built  like 
their  own,  in  strict  observance  of  this  hideous  archi- 
tectural etiquette.  Now  if  such  a  man  would  only 
stop  and  think  of  how  very,  very  little  importance  it 
is  to  the  rest  of  the  world  where  or  how  he  builds 
his  house  and  arranges  his  grounds,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  how  all  important  it  is  to  himself,  he 
might  avoid  that  fruitful  source  of  irretrievable  mis- 
chief—  the  false  point  of  view. 

We  may  next  consider  the  erroneous  idea  of  com- 
bating  nature.     A    writer   in   the   Ailaniic    Monthly 


l>;^ 


has  admirably  described  the  prevailing  vice  of  our 
domestic  architecture.     "  The  owner  has  built  him- 
self out  of  his  house,  and  his  house  out  of  the  land- 
scape."    He  not  only  builds  in  defiance  of  the  nature 
of  the  ground,  but  he  conceives  a  prejudice  against 
whatever  the  place  naturally  affords,  and  prefers  such 
features  as  are  difficult  and  costly.     He  will  prefer 
gravel  to  grass,  and  will  ostentatiously  parade  an 
enormous  driveway  on  the  lawn  side  of  his  house, 
thus  sacrificing  beauty  and  privacy  to  a  feeling  which 
he  would  himself,  probably,  find  it  difficult  to  exj^lain. 
He  will  prefer  a  stiff  hedge  to  an  informal  shrubbery. 
He  not  only  choses  plants  W'hose  culture  involves 
expense  and  difficulty,  but  he  declares  indiscriminate 
war  upon  all  the  indigenous  vegetation.     Here  again 
the   motive    for  the  wrong   steps  seems  altogether 
inadequate,  and  they  would,  probably,  in  many  cases 
be  avoided,  if  the  owner  would  stop  and  think,  not  of 
what  the  prevailing  fashion  demands,  but  of  what 
will  give  him  real  satisfaction. 

Lastly,  we  must  notice  the  delusive  idea  of  obtain- 
ing immediate  effects.  No  one,  perhaps,  deliberately 
thinks  that  his  landscape  is  to  be  realized  at  once. 
Yet  many  act  wholly  without  reference  to  the  future, 
haste  blinding  their  eyes.  There  are  three  ways  in 
which  the  mischief  appears.  First,  men  are  in  such 
a  hurry  to  plant,  that  the  question  whether  the  soil 
is  fit  for  plantations  is  quite  disregarded.  Hence 
arise  the  starved  and  sickly  specimens  everywhere 
visible.     Second,  of  all  the  characteristics  of  a  tree, 


6 

that  which  would  seem  least  liable  to  be  overlooked, 
is  its  tendency  to  grow.  Yet  trees  are  constantly  so 
placed  that  they  must  in  time  interfere  with  each 
other  and  with  other  objects,  so  that  eventually,  just  as 
we  become  attached  to  them,  we  are  forced  to  muti- 
late or  destroy  them.  Lastly,  it  is  a  general  rule 
that  almost  everything  done  in  haste  is  badly  done. 
The  operations  of  landscape  gardening  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  expensive,  yet  men  do  not  hesitate  to 
prosecute  them  with  such  precipitation,  that  they 
are  fortunate  if  they  have  to  do  the  work  no  more 
than  twice. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  only  of  what  to  avoid  ; 
let  us  now  look  at  the  positive  side  of  the  subject,  and 
consider  what  to  pursue ;  and,  first  of  all,  how  to 
begin.  We  must,  at  the  outset,  make  ourselves  well 
acquainted  with  our  land.  Look  first  at  the  direction 
of  its  inclinations.  Southern  slopes  are  among  the 
prime  resources  of  an  estate;  and,  in  our  country, 
the  West  is,  for  several  reasons,  rather  preferable  to 
the  East.  Next  consider  the  views.  These  are  to 
be  estimated  not  only  for  their  intrinsic  beauty,  but 
with  reference  to  direction,  to  accessibility,  to  per- 
manence, etc.,  etc.  Small  peaked  hills,  whence  one 
gets  an  extended  prospect,  are  common  enough,  and 
of  comparatively  little  value;  while  a  sheltered 
South-western  slope,  commanding  a  valley  or  water 
view,  the  objects  of  interest  lying  mainly  on  our 
own  ground,  so  that  the  prospect  cannot  be  cut  off 
and  may  be  indefinitely  improved, — this  is  invalu- 


able.  We  must  also  know  our  present  resources  in 
trees  and  shrubs,  though  the  vegetation,  since  almost 
entirely  in  our  own  control,  is  of  less  moment  than 
the  shape  of  the  land.  Lastly,  the  soil  itself  should 
be  examined,  and  chiefly  because  this  also  is  in  our 
power,  at  least  to  modify  considerably. 

Out  of  this  general  investigation  must  grow  our 
plan.  The  point  on  which  all  turns  is  the  position 
of  the  house.  When  we  remember  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  pleasure  which  we  shall  have  in  our  grounds 
will  be  got  by  looking  from  windows,  piazzas,  and 
terraces,  we  shall  take  care  that  no  minor  considera- 
tions deter  us  from  selecting  that  spot  whence  most 
may  be  quietly  enjoyed ;  and,  the  position  of  the 
house  being  settled,  let  us  resolutely  subordinate 
other  parts  to  this  all  important  feature.  It  is  evi- 
dent now  that  the  more  definite  plan  we  can  have  the 
better,  and  that,  if  we  could  be  sure  just  where  every 
tree  ought  to  grow,  it  would  be  an  advantage.  But 
it  is  equally  certain  that  we  cannot  have  at  once  this 
desirable  exactness.  One  sometimes  sees  plans,  made 
after  a  cursory  view  of  the  ground,  finished  with 
very  suspicious  accuracy  ;  for  every  one  who  thinks 
of  the  matter,  must  know  that  designs,  to  be  of  value, 
must  be  founded  on  considerable  acquaintance  with 
the  place ;  and,  even  then,  it  is  nearly  impossible  to 
direct  rightly  on  paper  the  position  of  every  separate 
tree.  There  are  many  of  these  positions  which  ought 
to  be  determined  by  looking  often  from  the  given 
point  of  view,  some  object,  such  as  a  pole  or  a  circle 


8 


of  stakes,  being  set  up  to  represent  the  desired  piece 
of  foliage,  in  the  way  so  well  described  in  the  supple- 
ment to  the  new  edition  of  Downing's  work,  by  which 
Mr.  Sargent  has  enhanced  the  value  of  a  book 
already  dear  to  all  students  of  this  subject.  Never- 
theless, when  designs  on  paper  truly  represent  well 
understood  and  deliberately  planned  improvements, 
they  are  of  great  service,  and  such  ought  by  all 
means  to  be  made  and  carefully  followed. 

Meanwhile,  though  we  move  with  deliberation,  we 
need  not  lose  a  moment.  Simultaneously  Avith  our 
planning  we  may  begin  our  planting.  If  any  part  of 
the  land  is  fit  for  a  nursery,  we  may  stock  it  at  once. 
If  not,  we  must  prepare  a  piece  as  quickly  as  possible, 
and  then  fill  it  with  small  trees  and  shrubs  —  the 
general  rule  being  that  the  nursery  be  rather  too 
large,  rather  too  well  prepared,  and  the  number  of 
plants  decidedly  more  than  enough.  This,  like  every 
other  right  move  in  gardening,  is  a  measure  of 
economy. 

While  the  nursery  is  going  on,  and  as  soon  as  the 
outline  of  our  plan  is  settled,  we  must  begin  to  im- 
prove the  soil.  In  every  sense  thorough  draining 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  all.  It  is  now  proved  that  all 
cultivable  land  is  the  better  for  it;  and  the  only  ques- 
tion is,  whether  in  certain  soil,  for  certain  purposes, 
the  benefit  is  worth  the  cost.  Without  attempting 
here  to  decide  these  cases,  it  is  enough  for  our  pur- 
pose to  know  that  for  nurseries,  gardens,  plantations 
and  lawns,  drains  are  almost  always  indispensable. 


9 

Their  chief  benefits  are  warming,  ventilating,  and 
deepening  the  soil ;  and  our  next  care  should  be  to 
extend  these  effects  by  ploughing,  subsoiling,  and 
judicious  manuring.  How  much  of  these  is  worth 
while,  must  be  determined  by  the  circumstances  of 
each  case,  but  we  may  be  sure  that,  to  some  extent, 
they  are  absolutely  necessary. 

At  length,  when  the  soil  is  prepared,  we  may  move 
our  trees,  at  the  most  favorable  time,  and  from  our 
own  nursery,  to  make  our  plantations.  Our  previous 
measures  having  given  us  complete  control  over  all 
the  circumstances,  we  proceed  sure,  not  only  of  suc- 
cess, but  of  rapid  realization.  It  is  astonishing  to 
those  not  familiar  with  such  work,  to  see  in  how  few 
years  beautiful  landscapes  can  be  obtained,  provided 
we  have  the  courage  and  patience  to  move  with 
deliberate  but  constant  energy. 

Let  us  now  consider  some  of  the  effects  which  it  is 
desirable  to  produce.  The  two  most  important  ideas 
to  keep  in  mind  are  simplicity  and  concentration. 
This  need  not  interfere  with  that  intricacy  so  effective 
in  large  and  highly  finished  grounds;  but  the 
refinements  must  come  gradually, —  the  broad  prin- 
ciples first.  We  will  suppose  that,  in  building  our 
house,  we  have  avoided  some  of  the  common  errors, 
and  that  we  have  placed  the  room  where  we  are  to 
live,  the  windows  where  we  really  mean  to  sit,  on  the 
side  where  we  get  our  most  desirable  view.  If  an 
ornamental  terrace  here  connects  us  with  our  grounds, 
so  much  the  better ;  but  we  need  not  be  dependent 


10 

on  the  existence  of  this  feature.     Better  have  no 
vestige  of  it  than  the  odious  expanse  of  road  which  is 
often  made  to  take  its  place.     We  may  consider  the 
view  from  our  principal  window  as  divided  into  fore- 
ground and  background,  of  which  we  can  control  the 
first,  and,  by  means  of  it,  modify  the  second.     The 
foreo-round  must  be  our  lawn.     Now,  just  as  a  sheet 
of  water   depends   for  beauty  on   the   broken   and 
varied  lines  of  its  shore,  so  does  the  lawn  depend  on 
the  outline  of  its  enclosing  plantations.     It  is  most 
important   to   keep   this   distinctly   in   mind.      The 
consequence  of  neglecting  it  is  that  common  spotty 
effect  where  lawn  and    plantations  get   thoroughly 
mixed  together,  to  the  total  sacrifice  of  the  landscape. 
To  make  this  outline  picturesque  and  beautiful  our 
materials  are  the  various  forms  and  colors  of  our 
trees.     We  are  not,  however  left  to  the  exercise  of 
our  unlimited  fancy.     A  moment's  thought  will  show 
us  that  the  landscape  will,  like  everything  else,  derive 
beauty  from  its  limitations.     Looking  at  the  unob- 
structed view,  we  see  at  once  that  some  portions  of  it 
are  much  less  attractive  than  others  —  probably  that 
some  are  highly  objectionable.     These  our  plantations 
must  conceal ;    and  we  shall  find  that,  as  part  of  the 
prospect  is  shut  out,  the  remainder  will  be  enhanced. 
In  the  composition  of  plantations,  though  it  is  clear 
that  true  variety  is  highly  desirable,  yet  it  is  also 
certain  that  the  nervous  attempts  to  avoid  monotony 
are  a  common  cause  of  failure.     On  the  other  hand, 
few  effects  are  more  satisfactory,  more  unwearying 


11 

than  a  continuous  mass  of  evergreen  deeply  indented 
by  bright  green  lawn,  and  forming  a  background  for 
fine  specimens  of  oak,  maple,  and  tulip-trees,  dressed 
in  their  autumnal  hues.  Yet  how  few  elements  are 
needed  to  produce  this  magnificent  chord  of  color ! 
For  most  cases,  the  safe  and  general  rule  is  to  avoid 
too  many,  kinds  of  large  trees,  to  keep  similar  foliage 
together  in  grand,  quiet  masses,  to  reserve  strong 
effects  of  contrast  for  the  outskirts  of  plantations,  and 
to  admit  more  and  more  variety  and  mixture  of 
species  as  we  use  smaller  trees  and  shrubs. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  offer  some  suggestions  as 
to  the  proper  office  of  a  landscape  gardener.  Passing 
over  the  clumsy  name,  which  it  is  now  difficult  to 
change  and  mend,  let  us  consider  how  the  person  it 
means  to  describe  can  make  himself  useful.  First,  it 
is  clear  that  he  should  act  as  a  reformer  of  the 
prevailing  errors,  some  of  which  we  noticed  above. 
This  office,  however,  does  not  exclusively  belong  to 
him.  Any  man  of  taste,  leisure,  and  observation,  is 
perfectly  capable  of  exposing  such  blunders.  Next, 
in  preparing  the  soil  and  forming  the  nursery,  the 
landscape  gardener  can,  as  counsellor,  be  of  great  use. 
It  is  by  no  means  desirable,  however,  that  he  should 
take  the  place  of  the  surveyor,  drainer,  and  agricultu- 
rist. If  he  does  so,  the  result  often  is  inferior  work 
at  greater  expense,  while  his  attention  is  diverted 
from  his  proper  business.  This  is  to  study  the 
grounds,  and,  from  this  study,  to  design  and  to  carry 
out  well-considered  plans.     It  is  evident,  for  reasons 


12 

arising  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  as  we  have  viewed 
it,  that  landscape-gardening  is  closely  connected  with 
architecture.  The  most  unpleasant  feature  of  our 
buildings  is  their  air  of  defiance  of  the  nature  about 
them;  and  nothing  can  make  a  country  house  satisfac- 
tory unless  it  be  harmoniously  connected  with  the 
landscape  of  which  it  is  the  governing  feature. 

110  Teemont  Steebt,  April  11,  1859. 


THOROUGH    DRAINAGE. 


It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  draining  holds 
the  first  place  among  mechanical  methods  for  effecting 
those  changes  upon  the  soil  by  which  it  is  made  more 
productive.  No  soils  can  be  injured  by  its  judicious 
application,  but  all  may  be  benefited  to  a  certain 
extent.  It  is  useful  even  in  sandy  soils,  and  where 
the  subsoil  is  light  and  porous ;  while  in  clay  lands, 
and  in  all  cases  where  stagnant  water  rests  near  the 
surface,  it  is  very  important  if  not  indispensable.  It 
is  a  necessary  preparation  for  other  agricultural  oper- 
ations, and,  when  once  thoroughly  done,  it  constitutes 
a  most  important,  permanent,  and  yearly  increasing 
improvement,  which  can  be  fully  produced  by  no 
other  available  means. 

A  few  of  the  many  advantages  that  result  from 
this  process,  and  which  experience  has  fully  proved, 
are  as  follows : 

The  drains  not  only  take  off  all  surplus  water  at 
once,  —  which  is  an  immediate  and  remunerative 
benefit,  —  but  they  have  also  begun  a  process  of 
change  and  amelioration  of  the  soil,  which  is  gradually 
deepened,  until  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  drains. 


14 


The  stagnant  water  which  had  filled  the  pores  of 
the  soil,  (allowing,  and  aiding  in  some  cases,  deposits 
of  peroxide  of  iron,  and  in  others,  deposits  of  carbo- 
nate of  iron  or  of  lime,  any  of  which  will  cement  the 
earthy  or  stony  particles  together,  forming  hard  pan,) 
is  removed,  and  its  place  is  at  once  supplied  by  fresh 
air  from  the  surface,  which  air  is  in  its  turn  driven 
down  into  the  drains  by  the  falling  of  rain ;  and  this 
process  is  constantly  repeated.  The  subsoil  is  thus 
made  more  porous  and  friable  while  being  mixed 
with  the  surface  soil,  and  the  deposits  which  cemented 
the  particles  of  soil  can  no  longer  be  made. 

Experience  has  shown  that  these  renewed  acces- 
sions of  fresh  air  are  very  valuable  in  promoting  the 
healthy  growth  and  the  quality  of  all  cultivated  crops. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  for  more  readily  admitting 
fresh  air,  draining  is  necessary,  even  in  the  most  por- 
ous subsoil.  Every  new  working  of  the  ground 
increases  the  efficiency  of  the  drains,  and  extends  that 
action  which  gradually  but  surely  improves  the  depth 
and  character  of  the  soil. 

The  water  of  rains  running  over  the  surface 
injuriously  washes  away  the  soil.  This  evil  is  averted 
by  drains,  which  allow  the  surplus  water  to  pass  read- 
ily through  the  soil ;  while  in  filtering  through,  it  im- 
parts to  the  soil  those  substances  useful  to  vegeta- 
tion which  rain  water  always  contains,  in  more  or  less 
abundance.  When  the  water  is  thus  readily  carried 
away,  the  soil  becomes  drier,  sweeter,  and  more  fri- 
able;  the  hard   lumps  of  clay  lands  crumble  away 


16 

and  disappear,  the  soil  working  easier  and  with  much 
more  economy. 

There  is  always  moisture  enough  held  in  the  soil 
by  capillary  attraction,  for  all  the  purposes  of  vegeta- 
tion, and  which  cannot  be  carried  off  by  any  number 
of  drains. 

We  have  found  by  experiment  that  an  ordinary  soil 
will  hold  in  suspension  nearly  half  its  bulk  of  water; 
which,  in  a  soil  three  feet  deep,  would  be  equal  to 
nearly  six  months*  rain-fall.  Water  thus  held  in 
suspension  does  not  close  the  pores  of  the  soil,  but 
still  allows  free  passage  of  air,  since  the  solid  parti- 
cles, in  a  friable  soil,  occupy  much  less  space  than 
the  pores  between  them. 

Where  the  surface  soil  is  porous  and  gives  a  ready 
passage  to  the  water,  while  the  subsoil  is  compact  and 
impervious,  then  the  roots  of  plants  are  compelled  to 
seek  their  nourishment  in  the  surface  soil  only. 

Air  and  warmth,  as  well  as  moisture,  are  indispen- 
sable to  growth,  and  where  stagnant  water  stops  out 
the^air  and  keeps  the  soil  cold,  there  can  be  no  vege- 
tation. It  is  only  on  the  lowering  of  the  water  table 
or  surface  of  stagnant  water  to  a  depth  of  three  or 
four  feet  from  the  surface,  that  roots  are  free  to  ex- 
tend as  deep  as  they  may.  Roots  of  wheat  and  of  clover 
have  been  traced  to  the  depth  of  four  feet  or  more, 
on  drained  land  ;  and  in  the  streets  of  cities,  roots  of 
shade  trees  sometimes  extend  to  a  depth  of  eight  feet, 
following  the  line  of  sewers.  The  action  of  the  drains 
is  immediately  to  withdraw  the  noxious  water  ;  and 


16 

the  subsoil,  which  gradually  acquires  properties  simi- 
lar to  the  upper  soil,  becomes  dry  and  porous  to  a 
greater  depth.     Deeper   ploughing,   subsoiling,    and 
trenching  are  now  practicable  ;  the  plants  have  a  lar- 
ger space  through  which  to  send  their  fibres  in  search 
of  food ;  the  elements  of  a  fertile  soil  are  brought 
into  action ;  and  the  water  in  passing  through  the 
soil  is  made  of  great  benefit,  instead  of  doing  such 
injury  by  remaining  stagnant.    The  result  is,  that  after 
draining,  the  increase  of  produce  is  often  enough  to 
pay  the  cost  of  this  operation  in  two  or  three  years. 
It  is  obvious  from   these  facts,  that  the  deeper  the 
drains,  provided  the  water  has  a  ready  escape,  the 
greater  the  depth  of  soil  which  is  made  available  for 
vegetable    nutrition.       Experience  has   shown    that 
water  does  find  a  ready  escape  into  drains  four  feet 
deep,  and  that  these  are   generally  more  beneficial 
than  those  laid  nearer  the  surface.     Both  the  depth 
and  the  distance  apart  must,  however,  be  to  a  certain 
extent  regulated  by  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

There  are  no  strong  and  good  soils  in  which  the 
water  table  naturally  stands  at  a  sufficient  depth  from 
the  surface.  All  such  soils  will  be  materially  benefit- 
ted by  thorough  draining,  whatever  their  position 
may  be,  or  the  inclination  of  their  surfiice. 

Thorough  drainage  prevents  freezing  out,  or  that 
process  of  crystallization  of  the  surface  which  draws 
young  plants  from  their  beds. 

A  given  quantity  of  manure  will  last  longer  and 
do  more  service  on  drained  than  on  undrained  land. 


The  farmer  who  adopts  this  system  is  less  at  the 
mercy  of  the  fickle  elements;  for  an  efficient  drainage 
carries  off  the  water  so  rapidly  that  his  ground  is  fit 
to  work  as  soon  as  the  rain  has  ceased,  and  he  is  not 
obliged  to  "  wait  for  the  land  to  dry."  He  has  also  a 
longer  season  for  his  work,  since  the  ground  is  ready 
for  crops  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  can  be  worked 
later  in  the  fall. 

Another  great  advantage  which  follows  the  prac- 
tice of  thorough  draining,  is  the  effect  it  has  in  raising 
the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

Heat  will  not  pass  downward  in  water,  and,  before 
a  soil  can  be  warmed,  the  water  must  be  removed. 
Again,  water  escapes  from  retentive,  undrained  soils 
by  evaporation  only,  —  a  process  which  uses  up  a 
great  amount  of  heat ;  one  pound  of  water  in  pass- 
ing into  a  state  of  vapor  absorbing  and  carrying  away 
972°  of  heat,  which  is  rendered  latent  or  insensible  to 
the  thermometer.  This  amount  of  heat  might  have 
raised  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  and  materially  assist- 
ed the  process  of  growth  had  it  not  been  lost  by  evapo- 
ration. Prof  Henry  gives,  in  the  last  Patent  Office 
Report,  a  table  by  M.  Schubler  showing  the  max- 
imum temperature  of  various  earths  exposed  to 
the  sun,  while  the  surrounding  air  was  at  about  78°. 
One  column  exhibits  the  temperature  of  moist  earth, 
and  the  other  that  of  dry  earth.  He  remarks,  that 
"  the  differences  of  temperature  exhibited  by  the  two 
columns  are  due  to  the  heat  expended  in  the  evapo- 
ration of  a  portion  of  the  water  in  the  moist  earth." 

2 


IS 

> 

In  six  cases  of  different  kinds  of  soils,  tlie  least 
difference  between  the  two  columns  is  13°  (in 
calcarious  sand) ;  and  the  greatest  difference  is  13.95° 
(in  garden  earth,  blackish  gray).  Taking  the  mean 
of  summer  temj^erature,  this  difference  is  equal  to  a 
removal  from  the  latitude  of  Massachusetts  to  that  of 
South  Carolina.  The  benefit  of  this  increase  in  tem- 
perature is  felt  in  the  spring,  by  bringing  the  land 
into  good  condition  to  work  two  or  three  weeks  ear- 
lier; and  also  in  the  fliU,  by  keeping  off  the  frost  two 
or  three  weeks  later.  Crops  may  be  planted  earlier, 
will  have,  on  account  of  the  higher  temperature,  a 
more  vigorous  growth  during  the  summer,  and  will 
have  ample  time  to  mature  in  the  fall  before  they 
can  be  injured  by  frost. 

Drains  are  peculiarly  suited  to  our  climate. 

The  objection  is  often  made  that,  though  draining 
has  been  proved  to  be  indispensable  in  Great  Britain, 
yet  here,  on  account  of  our  drier  climate,  it  is  less 
needed.  This  is  a  false  view  of  the  subject.  In 
England  the  fall,  in  a  single  day,  of  one  inch  vertical 
depth  of  rain  is  considered  remarkable  ;  while  here 
the  fall  of  three  or  four  inches  is  not  uncommon,  and 
a  fall  of  nearly  seven  inches  has  been  measured.  We 
need,  then,  provision  for  carrying  away  four  times  as 
much  surplus  water  as  is  provided  for  in  England. 
Beside  this,  the  humidity  of  the  English  climate  is 
such  that  the  evaporation  is  only  about  half  what  it 
is  here.     We  have  seen  how  heat  is  lost  by  evapo- 


n 

ration ;  so  that  on  this  account  there  is  double  the 
necessity   for   draining  here. 

Our  atmosphere  absorbs  moisture  so  rapidly  that 
the  surface  of  retentive  land  is  soon  baked,  and  water 
cannot  rise  from  below  by  capillary  attraction,  so  that 
crops  suffer  from  drought,  an  effect  which  we  seek  to 
arrest  by  mulching.  Drains  will  keep  this  soil  pul- 
verized, so  that  water  will  rise  freely  by  capillary 
attraction,  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  use  of  the 
crops. 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  our  limited  space,  to  enu- 
merate the  many  important  details  of  construction 
that  are  necessary  to  insure  an  active  and  permanent 
drainage. 

Duties  of  the  agricultural  engineer. 

Any  kind  of  work  can  be  executed  with  greater 
efficiency  and  economy  by  a  person  who  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  principles  involved,  and  who  has 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  details  of  practical  con- 
struction ;  and  especially  in  draining,  the  work  of  a 
novice  is  often  as  expensive  as  it  is  clumsy.  The 
agricultural  engineer  should  be  familiar  with  all  that 
appertains  to  thorough  draining ;  and  it  is  his  duty  af- 
ter being  called  upon  by  the  proprietor,  to  examine 
the  ground,  (digging  trial  holes  or  a  trial  drain  if  neces- 
sary) in  order  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  soil  as 
to  compactness,  dip  of  strata,  etc.,  and  also  to  find 
whether  the  source  of  wetness  is  from  beneath  by 
springs,  or  from  retention  of  surface  water.  If  it  is 
proposed  to  drain  a  large  area,  a  careful  topograph- 


20 

ical  survey  and  plan  should  be  made  to  aid  in 
establishing  the  system  of  drainage.  This  plan  is  also 
useful  both  for  farming  purposes  and  for  landscape- 
gardening.  Having  decided  upon  the  outfall  for  the 
drain  system,  and  the  position  of  main,  sub-main,  and 
minor  drains,  as  to  their  direction,  distance  apart, 
depth  and  grades,  the  whole  should  be  staked  out  on 
the  ground.  The  work  may  be  let  out  by  contract 
to  be  done  under  direction  of  the  engineer ;  or  men 
may  be  employed  by  the  day  under  a  competent 
overseer  who  attends  to  all  details  of  the  work,  giving 
grades,  etc.,  and  who  is  employer  and  pay-master 
of  the  men.  Much  of  the  work  on  grounds  of  small 
area  may  be  done  by  farm  hands,  under  general 
direction  of  the  engineer.  Materials  for  the  work 
can  usually  be  procured  by  the  engineer  at  a  lower 
rate  than  by  other  parties.  After  the  work  is 
completed,  a  careful  plan  of  the  whole  should  be 
made,  so  that  after  the  plough  shall  have  obliterated 
all  traces  of  the  drains  from  the  surface,  any  point  in 
the  system  may  still  be  easily  found  by  means  of  the 
plan. 


SEE     NEXT     PAGE 


C.  FOLLEN   &  G.  S.  CURTIS, 

ARCHITECTS  i 


ANB 


LANDSCAPE    GARDENERS, 

110    TREMONT     STREET, 

BOSTON. 


U  ND  E  R-D  RAINING. 


SHEDD   &   EDSON, 
AGRICULTURAL    ENGINEERS. 

Have  every  facility  for  carrying  on  this  department  of  Engineering,  and  they 
will  render  any  assistance  or  advice  that  may  be  required  of  them  by  persons 
who  are  about  executing  a  system  of  drainage  either  on  a  large  or  a  small 
scale. 

Complete  and  accurate  topographical  plans  made  to  show  the  area  of  land 
and  all  its  slopes  or  differences  of  level,  upon  which  a  system  of  drainage  may 
be  so  well  shown  in  every  particular,  as  to  make  them  very  valuable. 

Draining  Tile  of  all  sizes  furnished  at  the  manufacturer's  prices. 

Office  in  the  Iron  Building  — 

NO.   42   COURT   STREET,   BOSTON. 


PRICES  OF  TILE  AT  THE  MANUFACTORY: 

SOLE  TILE,  (In  form  as  No.  1.) 

1  1-2  inches,  per  M., $10.00 

2  "  "  "    12.00 

3  "  "  "    20.00 

4  «'  "  "    32.00 

fi  "  "  "    45.00 

HORSE  SHOE,  (In  form  as  No.  2.) 

2  1-2  inches,  per  M., $12.00 

3  1-2      '•         "      "    15.00 

5  1-2      "         "      " 30.00 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3  0112  002290762 


